Komunikasi Politik : Konsep-Konsep dalam Komunikasi politik

Berkaitan dengan konsep komunikasi Nimmo  mengemukakan, bahwa komunikasi merupakan proses interaksi sosial yang digunakan orang untuk menyusun makna yang merupakan citra mereka mengenai dunia (yang berdasarkan itu mereka bertindak), dan untuk bertukar citra itu melalui simbol-simbol. Letak ciri utama dari komunikasi adalah pertama: makna dari berbagai hal bagi orang-orang muncul karena tindakan bersama yang dilakukannya. Kedua, tindakan itu berupa pengamatan berbagai hal dan penempatan arah perbuatan berdasarkan interpretasi pribadinya. Dengan demikian orang melakukan pengamatan tentang berbagai hal, melakukan interpretasi, menyusun makna, dan bertindak atas dasar makna yang dipahaminya. Berkaitan dengan pemaknaan itu  Dean Barlund mengemukakan bahwa “makna merupakan sesuatu yang diciptakan, ditentukan dan diberikan, bukan sesuatu yang diterima begitu saja. Komunikasi bukanlah reaksi terhadap sesuatu, juga bukan interaksi dengan sesuatu, melainkan transaksi yang melibatkan penciptaan dan pemberian makna menurut tujuan orang-orang yang terlibat. Definisi di atas didasari pemahaman tentang proses. Proses merupakan arus perubahan yang memiliki sifat berkembang, dinamis, berkesinambungan, sirkular, tidak dapat diulang, tidak dapat dibalikkan, kompleks. Sebagai proses komunikasi tidak memiliki titik tolak (Nimmo, 1989).

Pada setiap peristiwa komunikasi selalu ada lima unsur yang memungkinkan berlangsungnya suatu proses komunikasi, yaitu : sumber (source), pesan (message), dan penerima (receiver), medium (saluran), umpan balik (feedback). Walaupun tiga unsur yaitu: sumber, pesan dan penerima, selalu harus ada dalam proses komunikasi. Sumber atau sering disebut sebagai komunikator, sender, atau pengirim, adalah pihak yang memprakarsai komunikasi. Pesan atau message, komunike merupakan isi komunikasi berwujud informasi, pengetahuan, ide dan lain-lain yang disampaikan melalui proses komunikasi. Sedangkan penerima, receiver atau komunikan bisa  audience maupun perorangan merupakan pihak yang dituju atau sasaran komunikasi. Proses komunikasi bisa dilihat melalui tingkatan analisis (level of analysis), yang menurut Chaffee (1975) digunakan untuk mempermudah pemahaman terhadap proses komunikasi manusia. Level pertama merupakan bentuk komunikasi antar pribadi, komunikasi terjadi bila melibatkan dua orang berlangsung secara bertatap muka terus menerus dalam waktu tertentu. Level kedua berupa komunikasi kelompok, yaitu komunikasi terjadi bila melibatkan minimal 3 orang atau lebih, berlangsung secara tatap muka dan membentuk suatu kelompok kecil, misalnya dalam rapat atau diskusi. Level ketiga  diperkenalkan sebagai komunikasi organisasi. Pada tingkatan ini komunikasi berlangsung dalam organisasi yang lebih besar misalnya perusahaan-perusahaan yang di dalamnya memungkinkan tercakup level komunikasi antar pribadi dan komunikasi kelompok. Misalnya komunikasi yang berlangsung antara pimpinan perusahaan dengan staf di bawahnya yang berlangsung secara vertikal, atau komunikasi antar bagian yang berlangsung secara horizontal. Level keempat adalah komunikasi massa, bentuk komunikasi ini menggunakan channel atau saluran media massa seperti koran, majalah, TV, Film, untuk bisa berkomunikasi dengan jumlah orang yang sangat besar, di berbagai tempat di dunia ini secara visual, audial, maupun audiovisual. Walaupun demikian, kini bersamaan dengan kemajuan teknologi komunikasi, keempat level yang dikemukakan oleh Chaffe tersebut bisa diramu dalam satu bentuk komunikasi interaktif melalui teknologi informasi yang dikenal dengan Internet.

 

Konsep Politik

Konsep politik sangat beraneka ragam dan karena kajian politik sudah sangat tua tentu disetiap era memiliki paradigma yang berbeda-beda. Konsep politik yang lebih umum, yang barangkali bisa dipakai untuk memahami komunikasi politik dikemukakan oleh Nimmo: “politik adalah siapa memperoleh apa, kapan dan bagaimana; pembagian nilai-nilai oleh yang berwenang; kekuasaan dan pemegang kekuasaan; pengaruh; tindakan yang diarahkan untuk mempertahankan dan atau memperluas tindakan lainnya. Dari semua pandangan itu ada kesepakatan bahwa politik mencakup sesuatu yang dilakukan orang; politik adalah kegiatan. Tetapi kegiatan yang berbeda dari kegiatan-kegiatan lain seperti ekonomi, keagamaan, atletik, dan lain-lain (Nimmo, 1989).

Berikutnya Hafied Cangara (2009) merangkum beberapa definisi tentang politik seperti dari P.Eric Laouw bahwa: “di tengah kelangkaan sumber daya yang tersedia, masyarakat akan berusaha mendapatkan akses untuk memperoleh sumber daya yang terbatas untuk memenuhi tuntutan hidupnya. Jika masyarakat tidak bisa memperoleh kepuasan yang maksimal untuk memenuhi tuntutan hidupnya, diperlukan keputusan alokasi sumber daya. Misalnya siapa yang akan memperoleh apa, bagaimana sumber daya yang terbatas itu dikelola dengan baik, siapa yang diberi wewenang (legitimasi) untuk mengambil keputusan karena keputusan yang diambil bisa menghasilkan ada pihak yang menang dan ada pihak yang kalah, diperlukan mekanisme untuk mengajak mereka agar bisa menerima keputusan tersebut”. Selanjutnya dikemukakan Laouw “sejak keputusan itu mempengaruhi kesempatan hidup orang, akan terjadi perebutan, baik antar pribadi maupun antar kelompok untuk menentukan siapa yang akan menduduki posisi kunci ketika dilakukan pengambilan keputusan. Perebutan juga terjadi saat memperebutkan nilai-nilai pondasi organisasi dan alokasi sumber daya. Oleh karena itu, elemen paling penting bagi politik adalah: suatu proses pengambilan keeputusan, perebutan untuk memperoleh akses pada posisi pengambilan keputusan, proses kewenangan untuk menjalankan keputusan-keputusan itu. Politik, dengan demikian mengandung sejumlah konsep seperti: kekuasaan (power), pengambilan keputusan (decision making), kebijaksanaan (policy), dan pembagian atau alokasi sumber daya (resources). Miriam Budiardjo (2002) mengemukakan “politik adalah kegiatan yang dilakukan dalam suatu negara menyangkut proses menentukan tujuan dan melaksanakan tujuan tersebut. Untuk melaksanakan tujuan tersebut, diperlukan kebijaksanaan umum (public policy) yang mengatur alokasi sumber daya yang ada. Dan untuk melaksanakan tujuan itu perlu ada kekuasaan (power) dan kewenangan (authority) yang akan dipakai, baik untuk membina kerjasama maupun menyelesaikan konflik yang bisa terjadi suatu saat. Tujuan politik untuk memenuhi kepentingan seluruh masyarakat, bukan pribadi maupun swasta (dalam Cangara, 2009,hal. 27-29)

Konsep Komunikasi politik

Seperti yang pernah dikemukakan oleh banyak ahli, terutama Harold D Laswell dengan formula ”Who says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect”,  komunikasi merupakan proses penyampaian pesan dari sumber komunikasi kepada penerima, yang berlangsung bisa menggunakan saluran (medium) maupun secara bertatap muka. Umpan balik sebagai balikan atas pesan yang telah diterima oleh penerima dalam proses komunikasi tersebut sangat berguna untuk menilai bagaimana akibat yang terjadi dari proses komunikasi. Komponen-komponen komunikasi tersebut  merupakan basis bagi  terjadinya proses komunikasi politik dalam suatu masyarakat. Untuk memperjelas pemahaman berikutnya tentang komunikasi politik, Alwi Dahlan mengemukakan bahwa, sebagai bidang kajian ilmu, komunikasi politik merupakan bidag atau disiplin yang menelaah perilaku dan kegiatan komunikai yang bersifat politik, mempunyai akibat politik, atau berpengaruh terhadap perilaku politik (Dahlan, 1990). Berbasis pada formulasi komunikasi demikian saja menurut Fagen nampaknya terlalu sederhana, karena alur yang komunikasi politik berjalan satu arah (linier) dari sumber komunikasi sebagai pemrakarsa kepada orang lain sebagai penerimanya. Namun demikian agar memenuhi tujuan, rumusan tersebut perlu dimofifikasi.. Tanpa ada teori politik umum yang didasarkan pada komunikasi, akan muncul kesulitan bagi “suatu pendekatan untuk studi politik”, suatu pendekatan di mana komunikasi sebagai suatu proses menjadi inti pemahaman, sehingga secara hipotetik nampak berkembang. Fagen menambah usulan bahwa untuk kepentingan penelitian terdapat 3 hal yang penting:

1.      Komunikasi sebagai proses mengisi politik sebagai suatu kegiatan.

2.      Apabila hal-hal itu tidak jelas benar, maka dapat digambarkan beberapa aspek kehidupan politik sesuai tipe-tipe komunikasi.

3.      Karena proses komunikasi memiliki kemampuan mengisi dan elastis dari perbendaharaan konsep ilmu politik, maka ada suatu literatur yang mungkin relevan bagi studi politik dan komunikasi (Fagen,1966).

Sebagai tambahan Kaid (2004) mengemukakan  tak satupun konsep tentang komunikasi politik bisa diterima secara luas, tetapi kecuali apa yang disampaikan Chaffe (1975) yang secara sederhana menyampaikan bahwa komunikasi politik adalah “peranan komunikasi dalam proses politik”.

Alfian (1990), peneliti politik LIPI, berkaitan dengan peran komunikasi dalam proses politik itu menjelaskan dengan gamblang menggunakan contoh: setelah menerima informasi dari berbagai pihak, mereka yang bertugas melaksanakan fungsi legislatif membuat UU yang dianggap perlu dan relevan, yang kemudian dikomunikasikan kepada yang berwenang (eksekutif dengan aparatnya) untuk melaksanakannya. Proses pelaksanaannya dikomunikasikan kepada masyarakat dan dinilai oleh masyarakat, penilaian itu kemudian dikomunikasikan lagi. Dalam seluruh proses komunikasi politik ini media massa, baik cetak maupun elektronika, memainkan peranan penting, di samping bentuk-bentuk komunikasi lain seperti bertatap muka, surat-menyurat, media tradisional, keluarga, organisasi, pergaulan (Alfian, 1990, hal. 2). Berkaitan dengan peran komunikasi politik dalam memelihara dan meningkatkan kualitas kehandalan suatu sistem politik yang sudah mapan, maka ia berperan memelihara dan mengembangkan budaya politik yang sudah menjadi landasan sistem itu. Oleh karena itu “komunikasi politik berperan mentransmisikan nilai-nilai budaya politik yang bersumber dari pandangan hidup atau ideologi bersama masyarakatnya kepada generasi penerusnya dan mempekuat proses pembudayannya dalam diri generasi yang lebih tua. Jadi, budaya politik itu terpelihara dengan baik, bahkan mungkin berakar dan terus berkembang  dari satu generasi ke generasi berikutnya. Komunikasi politik yang ada menjadi bagian integral dari budaya politik tersebut” (Alfian, 1990, hal. 4).

Pembidangan Komunikasi Politik

Alwi Dahlan menunjukan bahwa pembidangan atau pengelompokan kajian komunikasi politik ditempuh melalui beberapa cara. Pertama, adalah kategorisasi mengikuti disiplin utama komunikasi politik dilihat dari praktek atau oprasional komunikasi. Larson dan Wiegel membagi atas komunikasi ujaran, jurnalistik, dan ilmu politik. Kedua, menurut akar atau disiplin yang non teknis tetapi yang dapat memberikan pemahaman mengenai proses komunikasi politik seperti psikologi, sosiologi, antropologi, dan lain-lain. Ketiga, berdasarkan proses dan efek komunikasi, Mansfield dan Weaver (1982) membagi kajian-kajian dalam bidang ini menurut unsur-unsur yang terdapat dalam proses komunikasi, dilengkapi dengan metode kajian itu sendiri sebagai berikut:

Komunikator

Berkaitan dengan sub-bab tentang komunikator, khalayak, dan saluran komunikasi politik, seluruh materi dikutip dari  Zulkarimen Nasution (1990, hal 44-71). Menurutnya komunikator adalah  pihak yang memprakarsai (yang bertindak sebagai sumber) penyampaian pesan kepada pihak lain. Komunikator ini disebut juga source, encoder, sender atau actor, mencerminkan pihak yang memulai dan mengarahkan suatu tindak komunikasi. Ada dua bentuk komunikator dalam komunikasi politik yaitu individual dan kolektif.

Individual	Kolektif
Pejabat (birokrat)	Pemerintah (birokrasi)
Politisi	Partai Politik
Pemimpin opini	Organisasi kemasyarakan
Jurnalis	Media Massa
Aktivis	Kelompok penekan
Lobbyist	Kelompok elite
Pemimpin	Badan/perusahaan komunikasi
Komunikator profesional

Komunikator tersebut memiliki ciri-ciri, misalnya pejabat atau birokrat, bila mengutip Katz dan Kahn diketahui bahwa ”seorang birokrat adalah anggota suatu birokrasi yang merupakan suatu organisasi dengan tugas melaksanakan suatu kebijakan yang ditentukan oleh pembuat kebijakan tersebut.” Oleh karena itu ”seorang birokrat hanya dapat bekerja dalam bidang yang sudah ada aturannya. Apabila ada sesuatu hal yang belum ada peraturannya sebagai dasar pengurusannya, maka seorang birokrat tidak akan merasa dirinya kompeten untuk mengurusnya”. Peran birokrat dalam komunikasi dijelaskan oleh Almond dan Powell bahwa ”.... Akhirnya, birokrasi merupakan sesuatu yang teramat penting dalam performansi fungsi komunikasi dalam suatu sistem politik. Bahkan dalam sistem-sistem politik yang demokratis sekalipun, birokrasi merupakan satu dari sumber informasi  yang penting – jika bukan yang terpenting – tentang isu-isu publik danh kejadian-kejadian politik yang signifikan”.

Dengan demikian jelaslah bahwa birokrat sebagai anggota dari suatu birokrasi mempunyai banyak cara pengendalian terhadap berbagai macam informasi yang ditransmisikan dan caranya informasi tersebut ditafsirkan. Keputusan-keputusan yang dibuat  oleh elite politik, baik eksekutif maupun legislatif juga cukup banyak – kalau bukan sebagian besar – yang didasarkan pada jenis informasi yang diperoleh dari birokrasi. Sama dengan itu kelompok-kelompok kepentingan, partai politik, dan publik sebenarnya tergantung pada informasi yang dikirimkan para pejabat administrasi tersebut.

             

Komunikator lain yang bisa disebutkan adalah Partai Politik dan Politisi. Keduanya dipandang sebagai artikulator kepentingan yang bersifat institusional dan struktur khusus untuk penggerakan politik dalam suatu masyarakat modern.  Dalam suatu sistem politik yang kompetitif, partai menggerakkan kepentingan tertentu menjadi seperangkat usulan kebijakan, dan berusaha mengungguli pada pengumpulan pendapat untuk ”mengijoni” para pengambil kebijakan, yang akan menggunakan struktur kebijakan yang telah digerakkan seblumnya sebagai basis bagi pembentukan peraturan. Sedangkan dalam sistem yang non komptetitif, partai dapat menggerakkan kepentingan dalam cara yang mirip dengan apa yang dilakukan oleh suatu birokrasi yang hebat, meskipun struktur dan kegiatannya memungkinkannya untuk melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi lain lebih efektif dari pada suatu birokrasi..

           

Jadi memang kelihatan bahwa sekalipun tidak semua yang disampaikan oleh partai maupun para politisinya adalah sesuatu yang orisinal dari mereka, namun ketika mereka menyuarakannya, dianggap partai dan para politisilah yang berperan sebagai komunikator/sumber, atau yang memprakarsai peristiwa komunikasi politik yang dimaksud. Hal ini terasa manakala orang menyebut bahwa sesuatu hal yang tertentu merupakan ”suara atau pesat partai tertentu”, ataupun ”pendirian partai” dalam masalah-masalah yang sedang hangat misalnya.

Khalayak

Secara umum dalam komunikasi, pihak yang menjadi tujuan disampaikannya sesuatu pesan disebut sebagai penerima atau receiver, khalayak atau audience. Khalayak sebenarnya merupakan peran yang sifatnya sementara, karena saat tiba gilirannya penerima pesan tersebut memberikan umpan balik, ataupun pada kesempatan atau peristiwa komunikasi lain ia memprakarsai penyampaian suatu pesan, maka pada saat itu sebenarnya pihak yang tadinya disebut sebagai khalayak itu telah berubah peran menjadi sumber atau komunikator.

           

Seperti halnya tidak semua warga negara di suatu sistem demokrasi mempunyai minat atau perhatian secara inteligent dan kontinyu terhadap urusan kepemerintahan (govermental affairs), sehingga tidak semua warga negara dianggap sebagai khalayak komunikasi politik dengan intensitas yang sama. Davison (1969) membedakan khalayak sebagai general publik,  attentive public, dan elite opini dan kebijakan. Di antara semuanya, elite opini dan kebijakan merupakan kalangan yang paling aktif minatnya terhadap masalah kepemerintahan. Sedangkan publik atentif merupakan khalayak untuk diskusi-diskusi yang terjadi antar elite dan sewringkali dimobilisasi untuk bertindak dalam kaitan suatu issu politik. Publik umum yang meliputi lebih dari sebagian besar penduduk kenyataan jarang berkomunikasi dengan para pembuat kebijakan.

           

Publik yang attentif, oleh Almond (1960) disebut sebagai ”attentive stratum” atau lapisan masyarakat yang berperhatian, merupakan suatu sub-kultur yang khusus di mana kelompok-kelompok kepentingan jenis-jenis tertentu berkembang dengan subur,yaitu kelompok-kelompok kepentingan yang merasa berkepentingan  dengan masalah-masalah kebijakan umum ketimbang dengan kepentingan yang khusus. Khalayak yang berperhatian terhadap perkembangan yang berlangsung yang menyangkut kepemerintahan dan politik, merupakan suatu faktor yang amat diperlukan bagi terlaksananya sistem politik yang sehat. Lapisan masyarakat inilah yang mau tahu dan menaruh minat pada perkembangan keadaan negaranya.

           

Publik attentive menempati suatu posisi yang penting dalam proses opini. Pentingnya posisi tersebut menurut Nimmo (1978) didasarkan pada kenyataan bahwa:

(a)    Lapisan publik inilah yang berperan sebagai saluran komunikasi antar pribadi dalam arus pesan yang timbal balik antara para pemimpin politik dengan publik umum. Publik berperhatian ini merupakan khalayak utama (key audience) baik bagi komunikator massa maupun komunikator organisasional.

(b)    Publik attentif menyertai para pemimpin politik sebagai pembawa (carrier) konsensus politik yakni orang-orang yang dideskripsikan dalam bagian terakhir yang besar kemungkinannya  dari pada orang lain menunjang aplikasi spesifik aturan dan nilai-nilai umum demokrasi.

(c)    Publik attentive membentuk ”surrogate electorate” atau pemilih bayangan dalam periode antara masa pemilihan. Para politisi biasanya mempersepsikan gelombang arus opini di kalangan publik attentive sebagai representasi dari apa yang diyakini, dinilai dan diharapkan oleh publik umum (yang kurang berperhatian kepada politik selama semasa periode di antara dua pemilu). Dengan kata lain, khalayak yang mempunyai perhatian itu merupakan lapisan masyarakat yang berkemauan untuk mengikuti dalam perkembangan politik yang berlangsung.

Almond dan Verba telah melakukan penelitian tentang khalayak politik ini yang kemudian dikelompokkan menjadi high subjective political competence, medium political competence, dan low competence. Untuk kelompok yang masuk kategori tinggi kompetensi politik subyektifnya merupakan orang-orang yang memang membiarkan dirinya dikenai (exposed) komunikasi politik. Orang-orang ini setia mengikuti politik dan kampanye pemilu secara teratur. Mereka juga disebut sebagai self confident citizen yang berkemungkinan tidak sekedar menjadi penerima (khalayak) dalam komunikasi politik, melainkan besar pula kemungkinannya untuk mengambil bagian dalam proses politik itu sendiri. Dibandingkan dengan warga negara yang kompetensi subyektifnya lebih rendah, maka golongan yang lebih tinggi berkemungkinan besar menjadi warga negara yang aktif, yakni mengikuti perkembangan politik, mendiskusikan politik, atau menjadi seorang partisan yang aktif. Masalah keikutsertaan dan keaktifan warga negara dalam mewujudkan partisipasi bernegara telah menjadi bahan pemikiran sejak jaman Yunani Kuno, terutama karena dalam sistem demokrasi, peran orang biasa sebagai partisipan di bidang politik merupakan hal yang mempunyai makna penting. Warga negara yang dalam hubungannya dengan pemerintahnya hanya sekedar sebagai subyek – yaitu seorang warga negara yang pasif atau korban dari tindakan  rutin pemerintahnya- tidak akan membutuhkan partisipasi, seperti yang berlangsung pada suatu masyarakat tradisional non-demokratis.

Khalayak yang mempunyai perhatian terhadap perkembangan keadaan politik, memiliki informasi mengenai perkembangan tersebut, dan mau aktif berpartisipasi, merupakan kebutuhan suatu sistem politik. Menurut pandangan aktifis-rasionalitas suatu demokrasi yang sukses membutuhkan warga negara yang mau melibatkan diri dan aktif dalam politik, mempunyai dan memperoleh informasi politik, dan mempunyai pengaruh. Selanjutnya jika warga negara itu mengambil keputusan, khususnya keputusan penting tentang bagaimana memberikan suara (vote), mereka harus mendasarkannya pada penilaian yang cermat atas dasar bukti-bukti dan pertimbangan yang teliti mengenai alternatif-alternatif dari keputusan tersebut.

Sedangkan warga negara yang pasif, tidak memberikan suara, tidak memperoleh dan mengetahui informasi, ataupun warga negara yang apatis, merupakan suatu indikasi yang lemah. Namun pendapat demikian masih juga dikritik karena kenyataan memang warga negara pada suatu sistem demokrasi jarang yang persis seperti itu. Warga yang dimaksud, memang banyak yang tidak well informed   atau mengetahui secara keseluruhan, tidak pula banyak yang aktif.

Daftar Pustaka

Alwi Dahlan (1990), Perkembangan Komunikasi Politik Sebagai Bidang Kajian dalam Jurnal Ilmu Politik No. 6., Kerjasama AIPI, LIPI, Gramedia, Jakarta.

Almond, Gabriel dan Sidney Verba (1984), Civic Culture, terjemahan dalam Bahasa Indonesia: Budaya Politik, Bina Aksara, Jakarta

Alfian (1990), Komunikasi Politik dan Sistem Politik Indonesia, Gramedia,  Jakarta.

Hafied Cangara (2009), Komunikasi Politik: konsep,teori dan strategi, Rajawali Pers, Jakarta      

Nimmo, Dan (1989) Komunikasi Politik (terjemahan Indonesia), Remaja Karya, Bandung.  

Zulkarimen Nasution (1990), Komunikasi Politik: Suatu Pengantar, Ghalia Indonesia, Jakarta.

Fagen, Richard R (1966) Politics and Communication, Little Brown and Company, USA

Kaid, Lynda, Lee, (2004) Handbook of Political Communication Research, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, USA

Sumber : Bahan Kuliah Mata Kuliah Komunikasi Politik FISIP Universitas Diponegoro Semarang (Dosen : Joyo NS Gono )

Komunikasi Politik : Marketing dalam Politik

Tujuan marketing dalam politik adalah membantu partai politik untuk menjadi lebih baik dalam mengenal masyarakat yang diwakili atau menjadi target, kemudian mengembangkan program kerja atau isu politik yang sesuai dengan aspirasi mereka, dan mampu berkomunikasi secara efektif dengan masyarakat. Marketing tidak bertujuan untuk masuk ke wilayah politik, dalam arti menjadi cara pendistribusian kekuasaan atau untuk menentukan keputusan politik. Bagi marketing, semua hal tersebut sudah diputuskan (given), dan yang menjadi masalah bagi marketing dalam politik adalah mengkomunikasikannya kepada masyarakat. Di luar masalah itu, marketing niscaya dapat berkontribusi dalam poltik, terutama teknik marketing untuk pengumpulan informasi tentang semua hal yang terkait dengan isu dan masalah politik. Melalui konsep dan metode riset pasar, misalnya, dunia politik dapat melakukan proses pencarian, pengumpulan, analisis data dan informasi yang didapat dari masyarakat luas.

Marketing diyakini dapat menjembatani dua pihak yang saling berinteraksi, yaitu partai politik dan masyarakat. Focus dalam hal ini adalah sikap partai politik terhadap masyarakat, dan bukan sebaliknya, sebab partai politik adalah entitas social yang terorganisasi dan memiliki perangkat organisasi untuk mencapai tujuannya, sementara masyarakat lebih terfragmentasi. Inisiatif seharusnya diambil oleh system social yang terorganisir dibandingkan dengan system social yang tidak terorganisir.

Orientasi Pasar

Dalam iklim persaingan, entitas yang melakukan persaingan harus menghadapi kenyataan bahwa mereka bersaing untuk memperebutkan konsumen. Untuk dapat memenangkan persaingan dalam politik, partai harus dapat memuaskan kebutuhan politik masyarakat luas, yaitu berupa program kerja, ideology, harapan, dan figure pemimpin yang dapat memberikan rasa pasti untuk menghadapi masa depan. Tidak hanya itu, produk politik juga harus mampu meyakinkan masyarakat bahwa inilah cara yang dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan mesyarakat pada masa kini. Untuk itu, produk politik harus berorientasi pada pasar.

Orientasi Persaingan

Kondisi mutipartai dan semakin meningkatnya kesadaran akan persaingan yang sehat, bebas kolusi dan intervensi pemerintah terbukti telah membuat partai-partai politik menghadapi kenyataan bahwa mereka harus bersaing langsung dengan para lawan atau pesaing. Kenyataan ini membuat partai-partai politik harus bersaing sangat keras dalam membuat isu politik dan program kerja yang hendak mereka tawrakan kepda masyarakat. Jatuh bangunnya partai politik akan sangat ditentukan oleh kinerja mereka sendiri. Tentunya kinerja ini diukur tidak berdasarkan pendapat partai politiknya sendiri, melainkan berdasarkan apa yang dirasakan dan dipersepsikan konsumen – dalam hal ini masyarakat pemilih. Masyarakatlah yang paling bias menilai apakah suatu partai politik memiliki kinerja bagus atu tidak.

Dalam melakukan orientasi pasar, partai politik perlu menyadaribahwa mereka harus berorientasi pada persaingan. Orientasi persaingan adalah suatu pemahaman dan sikap bahwa kompetisi sangat diperlukan dan dari sanalah semua hal yang akan ditawarkan disusun. Suatu partai politik atau seorang kontestan individual harus melihat bagaimana peta persaingan mereka dengan kontestan atau partai-partai lain. Di luar itu, intensitas persaingan juga perlu diperhatikan. Struktur persaingan yang berbeda membutuhkan strategi yang berbeda juga.

Persaingan sangat dibutuhkan oleh partai politik karena beberapa hal. Pertama, melalui persaingan, partai politik dapat mengevaluasi secara objektif apakah yang mereka lakukan sudah benar atau tidak. Kedua, persaingan dibutuhkan untuk terus memotivasi partai politik agar berusaha lebih bagus dan tidak mudah puas dengan apa yang telah mereka raih selama ini. Ketiga, persaingan memberikan dinamisitas interaksi, karena partai-partai politik mencoba memberikan yang terbaik kepada masyarakat.

Orientasi Konsumen

Hal penting yang harus dimiliki oleh partai politik adalah kemampuan dalam menilai dan mengevaluasi siapa konsumen mereka. Pemilih, menurut Popkin (1994), akan memilih partai atau kandidat yang paling memiliki kedekatan ideology dan kebijakan. Partai atau kandidat harus memiliki hubungan yang erat dan terkait aktivitasnya dengan masyarakat (Clarket et al . , 2004). Konsumen dalam hal ini adalah masyarakat yang harus ditampung aspirasinya dan diterjemahkan dalam bentuk program kerja atau platform partai. Masyarakat adalah sumber inspirasi dan ide untuk mengembangkan program kerja. Program kerja harus disusun berdasarkan apa yang dibutuhkan masyarakat, sehingga hal pertama yang harus dilakukan adalah analisis atas kebutuhan mereka. Partai politik harus mampu menangkap aspirasi, keresahan, masalah, keinginan, harapan, impian, dan kekecewaan yang dirasakan masyarakat. Kemudian, mereka mengolah hal-hal tersebut serta menterjemahkannya dalam serangkaian program kerja.

Penyusunan produk politik tidak dapat dilakukan sendiri oleh partai politik tanpa melihat apa yang terjadi dalam masyarakat. Dalam iklim persaingan, partai politik dituntut untuk semakin memahami masyarakat. Produk politik yang ditawarkan harus sesuai dengan apa yang diharapkan masyarakat. Menurut Reid (1998), partai politik, apakah tertulis tau tidak tertulis, menghasilkan produk politik tidak boleh menyimpang dari apa yang diharapkan oleh masyarakat. Hal ini membawa implikasi bahwa partai atau kandidat pemilu harus secara tetap dan terus-menerus memperhatikan setiap perubahan yang dialami para pemilih atau masyarakat umum.

Paradigm dalam penyusunan produk politik yang selama ini hanya memperhatikan internal partai dirasa sudah tidak memadai lagi. Praktik lama seperti penyusunan produk politik yang dilakukan dalam tubuh partai dan kemudian ditawarkan kepada masyarakat dianggap tidak sesuai lagi dengan iklim persaingan. Para politikus diharapkan untuk terjun ke masyarakat guna memahami dan menyelami permasalahan yang dihadapi masyarakat. Produk politik harus dikembangkan dari permasalahan yang berkecamuk di masyarakat dan bukan hanya didasarkan pada tujuan atau kepentingan partai politik sendiri. Tujuan partai politik adalah melayani kebutuhan masyarakat. Iklim persaingan telah membawa pergeseran dari political party centred ke voter centred. Bahwa masyarakat adalah titik tolak bagi pengembangan produk politik.

Orientasi Pesaing

Selain berorientasi pada konsumen, partai politik harus berorientasi pada pesaing. Orientasi ini berupa selalu mengamati apa yang telah, sedang dan akan dilakukan oleh pesaing. Pesaing harus dianggap sebagai suatu ancaman permanen yang harus setiap saat dievaluasi. Dalam orientasi pasar, suatu partai politik harus terus-menerus menganalisi produk yang ditawarakan pesaing. Analisis ini penting untuk menghindari penurunan kemenarikan program kerja yang ditawrkan partai bersangkutan di mata pemilih. Di sisi lain, Gatignon et al . , (1989) menunjukkan bahwa pesaing akan berekasi dalam tiga hal atas apa yang dilakukan oleh suatu organisasi. Pertama, pesaing akan menyerang balik secara aktif atas apa yang telah dilakukan. Kedua, pesaing tidak melakukan apa-apa. Ketiga, pesaing menarik diri dari kompetisi ketika mereka melihat dahsyatnya mobilisasi dan kekuatan sumberdaya yang dimiliki suatu partai politik. Yang menjadi masalah adalah ketika pesaing secara aktif melawan balik strategi yang diterapkan. Keadaan ini akan menyita banyak waktu, pikiran, energy dan keuangan untuk mempertahankan efektivitas strategi yang telah dicanangkan, sebab pesaing tidak akan membiarkan suatu pihak mendominasi pasar. Akibatnya, suatu partai tidak bias dengan leluasa membentuk opini public, setidak-tidaknya tidak sebebas yang diharapka.

Riset Pasar

Untuk memahami apa yang dibutuhkan pasar atau aspirasi apa yang akan diperjuangkan partai politik maka perlu dilakukn riset pasar. Penelitian diharapkan dilakukan terus-menerus untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang semua hal yang terjadi di luar organisasi partai politik, yaitu perubahan yang terjadi di masyarakat, perubahan peraturan pemerintah tentang semua kebijakan yang menyangkut kehidupan berpolitik, serta untuk mengamati apa saja yang dilakukan pesaing politik. Tujuan utamanya adalah mempersiapkan organisasi politik untuk melakukan langkah-langkah adaptasi terhadap semua perubahan yang terjadi.

Riset pasar berbeda dengan polling. Sherman dan Sciffman (2002), polling adalh suatu bentuk riset tentang intense, preferensi, opini dan sikap pemilih terhadap suatu isu politik, kebijakan politik, dan figure pemimpin politik. Sedangkan riset pasar dilihat lebih komperhensif dan lebih menggali permasalahn dalam perspektif yang cakupan dan kompleksitasnya jauh lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan polling. Metode riset pasar yang sering digunakan adalah survey, focus group discussion dan wawancara mendalam (depth interview). Meskipun hasil polling juga sering dijadikan salah satu sumber informasi, akan tetapi lebih disarankan masing-masing kontestan memiliki aktivitas riset yang lebih komperhensif dan mendalam supaya pemahaman setiap kandidat terhadap permasalahan yang dihadapi oleh masyarakat dapat dianalisis dengan menggunakan kerangka ideologis yang dimiliki.

Riset pasar diharapkan sebagai aktivitas monitoring melalui pencarian dan pengumpulan informasi, analisis serta perumusan langkah-langkah strategis. Tidak semua perubahan disikapi, hanya perubahan eksternal yang memiliki potensi mengancam perolehan suara partai politik sajalah yang perlu mendapat perhatian. Melalui riset pasar, partai politik akan dapat selalu meng-up-to-date pemahaman mereka tentang apa yang berkembang dalam masyarakat, pesaing dan kebijakan pemerintah.

Peran Riset Pasar

Riset pasar memungkinkan partai politik untuk memahami perilaku masyarakat, pesaing dan tren-tren terbaru dalam bidang politik. Riset pasar memungkinkan partai politik untuk mencari dan menyediakan informasi yang berguna untuk pemecahan masalah yang sedang dihadapi oleh masyarakat. Riset pasar juga berguna untuk mengurangi bias informasi. Selain itu, riset pasar juga melakukan pemberian makna atas informasi yang didapat. Serta, riset pasar juga dapat menghasilkan informasi yang berguna untuk input bagi pengambilan keputusan internal partai politik.

Tahapan dalam Riset Pasar

Tahapan penelitian diawali dengan identifikasi tentang adanya permasalahan yang harus diselesaikan. Identifikasi permasalahan ini penting untuk memberikan arahan tentang apa yang akan dibahas dan diteliti. Permasalahan yang ada juga dapat memberikan batasan-batasan terhadap penelitiannya, sehingga dapat lebih focus. Setelah permasalahan dalam masyarakat diidentifikasi, berikutnya adalah tujuan penelitiannya harus jelas. Harus jelas mengenai apa yang mau diselesaikan dan yang ingin dipecahkan mengenai permasalahan besar tersebut, karena hal ini juga akan memberikan orientasi tentang mau dibawa kea rah manakah penelitian tersebut. Setelah itu, perlu diidentifikasi pendekatan yang akan digunakan: deskripsi, eksplorasi atau sebab-akibat. Yang terpenting adalah menyesuaikan desain riset dengan alternative pendekatan yang tersedia. Kita tidak dapat menggunakan satu pendekatan saja untuk menjawab semua maslah, setiap pendekatan memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan. Satu pendekatan lebih sesuai digunakan untuk menjawab suatu permasalahan dibandingkan pendekatan lainnya. Setelah semua data dan informasi dikumpulkan, proses berikutnya adalah analisis atas semua material yang diperoleh di lapangan. Proses analisis ini krusial, karena melibatkan ideology dan nilai-nilai suatu partai politik. Proses pemaknaan dan pengartian sebuah peristiwa membutuhkan kerangka berpikir. Bagi partai-partai politik, ideology masing-masing partai merupakan kerangka yang digunakan untuk menganalisis suatu fenomena. Karena itu, fenomena yang sama akan dimaknai secara berbeda oleh partai yang memiliki ideology berbeda. Hal ini juga akan menentukan kesimpulan dan rekomendasi atas langkah-langkah yang akan diambil.

Sumber Data Politik

Sumber data politik ada dua, yaitu data internal dan data eksternal partai politik. Data internal berupa data anggota partai, data pemilih partai, data keuangan partai, data aktivitas publikasi partai, data kampanye partai dan lain-lain. Data internal dapat dijadikan bahan untuk mengetahui sejarah hidup berlangsungnya suatu partai. Data internal juga dapat memberikan panduan program kerja apa yang belum dilakukan oleh partai dan program kerja apa yang sudah dilakukan di masa lalu. Selain itu, partai politik juga harus mengevaluasi perubahan eksternal organisasi partai politik. Ada dua jenis data; data sekunder (studi lembaga idependen, publikasi media masa, data resmi lembaga pemerintah), dan data primer (survey, observasi, eksperimen).

Tipe Riset Pasar

Penelitian eksploratif (exploratory research), penelitian ini tujuan utamanya adalah menggali dan memahami suatu peristiwa yang terjadi dalam masyarakat. Ini perlu dilakukan karena partai politik belum memiliki pengetahuan yang cukup tentang permasalahan yang sedang terjadi dalam masyarakat. Tugas utama dari eksplorasi adalh mengumpulkan informasi sebanyak mungkin dari berbagai sumber informasi. Eksplorasi dapat dilakukan dengan dua cara; Pertama, penelitian yang menggunakan kontak langsung dengan masyarakat (wawancara tidak terstruktur, focus group discussion, dan menanyakan langsung kepada ahli yang terkait dengan masalah tersebut).  Kedua, penelitian eksplorasi dapat dilakukan tanpa melalui kontak lansung dengan masyarakat (data atau informasi yang dipublikasikan di media atau data arsip di berbagai instansi terkait).

Penelitian deskripsi (descriptive research), penelitian ini mencoba memetakan dan mengklasifikasikan informasi yang dapat menjadi suatu bentuk penyajian yang sistematis. Tugas utama penelitian deskripsi adalah membantu dan memudahkan para pengambil keputusan dalam menganalisis suatu kejadian secara sistematis.  Penelitian semacam ini dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan peralatan statistic deskripsi ataupun ilustrasi singkat terhadap suatu kejadian yang didasarkan pada fakta.

Penelitian sebab-akibat (inferential research), tujuan utama penelitian ini adalah mencoba melihat kaitan sebab-akibat dari variable-variabel permasalahan dalam masyarakat. Penelitian ini menggunakan alat ukur statistic atau ekonometri (melalui proses modelling), akan dapat dianalisis dampak dari setiap kenaikan variable independen terhadap variable dependen. Dalam perhitungan variable-variabel perlu adanya standard error, hal ini karena tidak semua variable yang ada dalam kehidupan dalam masyarakat dilibatkan dalam perhitungannya, akan tetapi Cuma beberapa variable saja yang dilibatkan dalam perhitungan tersebut. Melalui penelitian ini, partai politik dapat memperkirakan kemungkinan (probability) suatu fenomena yang terjadi di masyarakat.

Segmentasi Politik

Partai politik harus mampu mengidentifikasi kelompok-kelompok (segmentasi) yang terdapat dalam masyarakat. Dengan teridentifikasinya kelompok-kelompok ini, partai politik dapat memahami karakteristik di setiap kelompok masyarakat. Masyarakat akan diidentifikasi dan dikelompokan berdasarkan karakteristik tertentu. Kompleksitas dan kerumitan struktur masyarakat dicoba disederhanakan malalui identifikasi setiap kelompok yang menjadi penyususn utama suatu masyarakat. Masyarakat tidak tersusun dari nilai dan pola tunggal, tetapi terdiri dari baeragam kelompok yang membutuhkan pendekatan berbeda satu dengan yang lain. Untuk dapat mencakup sebanyak dan seluas mungkin  lapisan masyarakat, partai politik perlu memahami kelompok-kelompok yang menyusunnya.

Fungsi dan Peran Segmentasi

Orientasi pasar sangat tergantung pada segmentasi yang merupakan aktivitas seperti deteksi, evaluasi, dan pemilihan kelompok yang memiliki kesamaan karakteristik sehingga memungkinkan untuk mendesain suatu strategi yang sesuai dengan karakteristik tersebut (Fransisco, 1996). Segmentasi perlu dilakukan untuk memudahkan partai politik dalam mengenalisis perilaku masyarakat, mengingat masyarakat terdiri dari berbagai kelompok yang memiliki latar belakang dan karkateristik berbeda.

Partai politik harus memahami dengan siapa mereka berkomunikasi. Masing-masing segmen membutuhkan teknik dan metode yang berbeda. Segmentasi sangat diperlukan untuk menyusun program kerja partai, terutama cara berkomunikasi dan membangun interaksi dengan masyarakat.  Dalam orientasi pasar, kondisi real yang dihadapi masyarakat nyata itulah program kerja akan diturunkan. Partai juga perlu memperhatikan bahwa masing-masing kelompok di dalam masyarakat memiliki permasalahan spesifik berbeda dengan kelompok lainnya. Dari hal itulah dasar bahwa segmentasi membantu partai politik dalam menyusun produk politik sesuai segmentasi yang dipilihnya. Hal ini tentunya akan lebih efektif dalam menyampaikan pesan-pesan politik pada masyarakat karena tepat sasaran.

Teknik Segmentasi

Dasar-dasar membuat segmentasi :

1.      Geografi. Masyarakat dapat disegmentasi berdasarkan geografis dan kerapatan (density) populasi.

2.      Demografi. Konsumen politik dibedakan berdasarkan umur, jeniskelamin, pendapatan, pendidikan, pekerjaan, dan kelas social. Masing-masing kategorimemiliki karakteristik yang berbeda tentang isu politik satu dengan yang lain. Sehingga perlu untuk dikelompokkan berdasarkan criteria demografi.

3.      Psikografi. Psikografi memberikan tambahan metode segmentasi berdasarkan geografi. Dalam metode ini, segmentasi dilakukan berdasarkan kebiasaan, pola hidup, dan perilaku yang mungkin terkait dalam isu-isu politik.

4.      Perilaku (behavior). Masyarakat dapat dikelompokkan dan dibedakan berdasarkan proses pengambilan keputusan, intensitas ketertarikan dan keterlibatan dengan isu politik, loyalitas, dan perhatian terhadap permasalahan politik. Masing-masing kelompok memiliki perilaku yang berbeda-beda sehingga perlu diidentifikasi.

5.      Social budaya. Pengelompokan masyarakat dapat dilakukan melalui karakteristik social dan budaya. Klasifikasi seperti budaya, suku, etnik, dan ritual spesifik seringkali membedakan intensitas, kepentingan, dan perilaku terhadap isu-isu politik.

6.      Sebab-akibat. Selain metode segmentasi yang bersifat statis, metode ini mengelompokkan masyarakat berdasarkan perilaku yang muncul dari isu-isu politik. Sebab-akibat ini melandaskan metode pengelompokan berdasarkan perspektif pemilih (voters). Pemilih dapat dikelompokkan berdasrkan pemilih rasional, tradisional, kritis, dan pemilih mendua.

Positioning Politik

Positioning dalam marketing didefinisikan sebagai semua aktivitas untuk menanamkan kesan di benak para konsumen agar mereka bias membedakan produk dan jasa yang dihasilkan oleh organisasi bersangkutan. Dalam positioning, atribut produk dan dan jasa yang dihasilkan akan direkam dalam bentuk image yang terdapat dalam system kognitif konsumen. Dengan demikian, konsumen akan dengan mudah mengidentifikasi sekaligus membedikan produk-produk atau jasa-jasa lainnya. Hal-hal seperti kredibilitas dan reputasi dapat digunakan sebagai media untuk melakukan positioning.

Partai politik harus tampil beda dari partai lainnya agar mudah diidentifikasi oleh masyarakat pemilih. Masyarakat (konsumen pemilih) cenderung akan merasa tidak ada bedanya (indiference) dalam memilih  satu diantara beberapa partai politik lain yang memimiliki karakteristik yang sama. Oleh karena itu, positioning suatu partai politik harus memiliki karkateristik yang berbeda dari karakteristik partai lainnya. Hal ini agar image partai politik selalu tertancap di benak konsumen (masyarakat pemilih).

Masing-masing partai politik harus berusaha menjadi dominan dan menguasai benak masyarakat. Posisi yang kuat dalam benak masyarakat membuat sustu partaipolitik selalu diingat dan menjadi refrensi bagi masyarakat ketika mereka dihadapkan pada serangkaian pilihan politik. Menjadi refrensi berarti bahwa pertain politik tersebut menjadi acuan dan yang pertama kali muncul dalam benak masyarakat ketika mereka dihadapkan pada suatu permasalahan.

Permasalahan mendasar dalam positioning adalah penciptaan consistent image (image konsiten) yang mengerucut pada suatu tema tertentu – di mana image politiknya terdiri dari program kerja partai, isu politik dan image pemimpin partai.

Sumber : Firmansyah. Marketing Politik. Jakarta : Yayasan Obor Indonesia, 2008

Psikologi Komunikasi : Karakteristik Manusia Komunikan

Pada suatu peristiwa komunikasi, psikolog justru memfokuskan perhatiannya pada perilaku komunikan (partisipan komunikasi) Psikolog mulai masuk ketika membicarakan:

1. Bagaimana manusia memproses pesan yang diterimanya

2. Bagaimana cara manusia berpikir

3. Bagaimana cara manusia dipengaruhi lambang-lambang yang dimiliki.

Setiap bidang ilmu memiliki definisi sendiri tentang manusia. Dalam ilmu psikologi ada beberapa konsepsi tentang manusia yang juga turut melatarbelakangi banyak teori dalam ilmu komunikasi. Pendekatan tersebut adalah:

PSIKOANALISIS

Didirikan oleh Sigmund Freud, yang berusaha merumuskan psikologi manusia. Aliran ini beranggapan bahwa unconsciouness (ketidaksadaran) adalah bagian penting yang mempengaruhi perilaku manusia. Unconscious adalah ‘reservoir’ dorongan insting dan gudang penyimpanan segala pemikiran dan harapan yang tidak muncul dalam kesadaran yang disebabkan oleh konflik psikologis. Menurut Freud, unconscious adalah ‘major motivating force behind human behavior’ . Perilaku manusia adalah merupakan hasil dari 3 subsistem kepribadian, yaitu:

1. Id. Dorongan yang muncul dari unconscious yang menyimpan dorongan-dorongan biologis manusia (pusat instik). Id bergerak berdasarkan pleasure principal, secara khusus memusatkan diri pada pemuasan tanpa memperhatikan logika, realitas atau moralitas. Id ,merupakan tabiat hewani manusia, bersifat menuntut, impulsive, dan kekanak-kanakan. Ada 2 instink dominan: Libido (eros): instink reproduktif yang member energi dasar untuk kegiatan konstruktif. Mis: seks, cinta diri, kasih ibu, dll. Thanatos: instink destruktif dan agresif (instink kematian).

2. Ego. Ego menjembatani tuntutan Id dengan realitas dunia luar. Id mencari pemenuhan kepuasan namun tidak dapat menentukan perbuatan yang berbahaya atau aman. Ego berperan sebagai mediator antara hasrat hewani manusia dengan tuntutan rasional. Menurut Freud, ego mulai berkembang sejak manusia lahir, namun tidak kelihatan sampai umur 6 bulan. Tidak seperti id, Ego beroperasi dalam kesadaran dan bergerak berdasarkan reality principle. Ego tidak bisa menghilangkan id, tapi berusaha membatasi, mengalihkan atau melindungi id agar diri dapat merasakan kepuasan dengan kemungkinan damage atau pain yang paling kecil.

3. Superego. Superego atau polisi kepribadian, mewakili gambaran ideal dan standar moral masyarakat yang diajarkan orang tua pada anaknya. Sering diistilahkan dengan hati nurani (conscience), yaitu internalisasi norma social dan cultural. Id dan superego berada di bawah alam sadar. Superego secara terus-menerus menekan dorongan seksual dan kesenangan utuk memenuhi tuntutan ideal moralitas. Superego akan menimbulkan perasaan bangga dan harga diri apabila sudah melakukan perbuatan ‘baik’ dan akan merasa bersalah apabila merasa melakukan perbuatan ‘jahat’.

Psikoanalisis : intreaksi antara komponen biologis, psikologis dan sosial (animal, rasional dan moral). Bagaimana cara Ego menyeimbangkan pertentangan tujuan antara Id dan Superego sambil tetap memperhatikan tuntutan realitas? Pertanyaan ini membawa kita pada Mekanisme Kegelisahan dan Mekanisme Pertahanan Diri. Ketika Ego gagal menyatukan tuntutan Id dan Superego, maka seseorang akan mengalami tekanan psikis yang disebut dengan Kegelisahan (Anxiety). Anxiety adalah pertentangan di dalam diri yang timbul ketika Ego menyadari bahwa ekspersi dorongan dari Id akan mengakibatkan suatu kekerasan/ menyakiti dan atau tuntutan Superego sebagai sesuatu yang tidak mungkin. Apabila ini terjadi, maka Ego akan mengambil jalan Mekanisme Pertahanan Diri, strategi mental yang menghalangi dorongan merusak dari Id sambil mengurangi kegelisahan. Beberapa bentuk dari Mekanisme Pertahanan Diri adalah :

1. Repression : Menekan dorongan Id yang tidak dapat diterima (unacceptable) kembali ke dalam ketidaksadaran.

2. Denial : Penolakan pada ancaman yang disadari/ diakui.

3. Regerssion : seseorang kembali pada perilakuperilaku yang biasa dilakukannya ketika masih muda/ kecil.

4. Reaction formation : dorongan atau perasaan yang menimbulkan kegelisahan digantikan dengan pertantangan langsung perasaan tersebut.

5. Projection : menghubungkan perasaan-perasaan yang dialami seseorang kepada orang lain.

6. Displacement : mengalihkan perasaan-perasaan yang tidak dapat diterima dari target yang sebenarnya kepada target yang lebih “aman”.

7. Sublimation: adalah suatu bentuk lain displacement : dorongan-dorongan tersembunyi diarahkan pada tujuan atau keinginan yang ingin dicapai oleh masyarakat secara umum.

8. Rationalization : terjadi ketika seseoang berusaha untuk menjelaskan kegagalan atau hambatan dalam suatu cara yang aman/ tidak mengancam.

Psikoanalisis juga menjelaskan tahapan perkembangan Psikoseksual:

1. Oral stages: bayi.

2. Anal stage: tahun kedua kehidupan anak.

3. Phallic stages: tahun ketiga, kelima atau keenam kehidupan anak.

4. Latency: umur kelima atau keenam sampai pubertas.

5. Genital stages: masa dewasa.

Kritik terhadap Psikoanalisis:

1. Data tidak dikumpulkan dan dianalisis secara ilmiah atau scientific -> sangat bergantung pada studi kasus

2. Sampel sangat kecil dan atypical

3. Konsep-konsep Freudian untestable: didefinisikan dalam cara yang tidak bisa di approve atau disapprove

4. Mengandung bias gender

BEHAVIORISME

Perilaku manusia adalah produk dari dorongan-dorongan lingkungan. Learning is “the reassortment of responses in a complex situation.” – it is the result of conditioning (human behavior not a function of needs or drives). Fokus pada perlaku yang dapat diukur, dilukiskan dan diramalkan. Semua perilaku manusia adalah proses belajar, dan proses itu mendapat penaruh dari lingkungan Aliran ini beranggapan bahwa perilaku manusia dikendalikan oleh faktor utama, yaitu faktor lingkungan. Konsep belajar:

1. Classical Conditioning

2. Operant Conditioning

Asumsi konsepsi Behaviorisme antara lain :

1. Pengalaman adalah satu-satunya jalan ke pemilikan pengetahuan.

2. Idea dan pengetahuan merupakan dua hal yang dihasilkan oleh pengalaman

3. Seluruh perilaku manusia, kepribadian dan tempramen ditentukan oleh pengalaman indrawi

4. Organisme dilahirkan tanpa sifat-sifat sosial dan psikologis, dimana perilaku adalah hasil pengalaman

5. Perilaku digerakkan dan dimotivasi oleh kebutuhan untuk memperbanyak kesenagan dan mengurangi penderitaan.

Kritik terhadap Behaviorisme :

1. Reductionistic -> view that complex behaviors can be understood if broken down into smaller Idea

2. Narrow definition of behavior

3. Narrow definition of learning -> no distinction between learning and performance

4. Fails to deal with the source of behavioral change

5. Lack of naturalistic observation

KOGNITIVIST

Aliran ini melihat bahwa tindakan manusia muncul dari poses berpikir, bukan sekedar data dari lingkungan yang diterima oleh alat indera. Aliran ini melihat bahwa proses-proses seperti memory, bahasa, pikiran, pemecahan masalah dan pengambilan keputusan turut serta memberi kontribusi terhadap munculnya suatu perilaku. Misal: memory bukanlah proses pasif, namun individu secara aktif menginterpretasikan kejadian. Karena itu memory terhadap suatu kejadian dapat berubah sejalan dengan waktu. Contoh lain: schema.

Asumsi Psikologi Kognitif

1. Jiwa (mind) yang menjadi alat utama pengetahuan.

2. Jiwa menafsirkan pengalaman indrawi secara aktif; mencipta, mengorganisir, menafsirkan, mendistorsi, dan mencari makna.

3. Manusia tidak memberikan respon kepada stimuli secara otomatif, namun melalui proses berpikir.

4. Sebelum memberikan respon, manusia menangkap terlebih dahulu “pola” stimuli secara keseluruhan dalam satuan-satuan yang bermakna.

5. Lewin merumuskan perilaku manusia sebagai B=f (P,E) artinya Behavior adalah hasil interaksi antara Person dan Environment.

HUMANISTIK

Psikologi humanistik lebih menekankan pada pentingnya kesadaran daripada ketidaksadaran, motivasi dan perilaku. Mendasarkan pemikirannya pada adanya keinginan bebas (free will) dan pilihan-pilihan dalam diri manuasia. Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behavior is connected to his inner feelings and selfimage. Pendekatan Humanistik menekankan pada dua asumsi :

1. Karena pengalaman subjektif adalah sesuatu yang unik, maka kita akan dapat mengetahui kepribadian orang lain hanya dengan berusaha melihat dunia dari pandangan seseorang tersebut.

2. Seseorang bebas untuk menjadi seseorang yang dia inginkan, untuk membuktikan dirinya sendiri, menentukan nasibnya sendiri dan menuliskan sejarahnya sendiri.

James Bugental (1964), menyimpulkan dalam the five postulates of Humanistic Psychology:

1. Human beings cannot be reduced to components.

2. Human beings have in them a uniquely human context.

3. Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people.

4. Human beings have choices and responsibilities.

5. Human beings are intentional, they seek meaning, value and creativity

Inti dari Pendekatan Humanistik Keyakinan yang kuat pada Self Determination dan Individual Potential. Contoh Pendekatan Humanistik : Therory of The Self dari Carl Rogers dan Self Actualization dari Abraham Maslow.

Sumber : Bahan Kuliah Mata Kuliah Psikologi Komunikasi FISIP Universitas Diponegoro Semarang (Dosen : S Rouli Manalu, S.Sos, MA)

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The above rights may be exercised in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter devised. The above rights include the right to make such modifications as are technically necessary to exercise the rights in other media and formats. Subject to Section 8(f), all rights not expressly granted by Licensor are hereby reserved.

4. Restrictions. The license granted in Section 3 above is expressly made subject to and limited by the following restrictions:

1. You may Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work only under the terms of this License. You must include a copy of, or the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) for, this License with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on the Work that restrict the terms of this License or the ability of the recipient of the Work to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. You may not sublicense the Work. You must keep intact all notices that refer to this License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Work that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Work from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. This Section 4(a) applies to the Work as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Work itself to be made subject to the terms of this License. If You create a Collection, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Collection any credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested. If You create an Adaptation, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Adaptation any credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested.
2. You may Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation only under the terms of: (i) this License; (ii) a later version of this License with the same License Elements as this License; (iii) a Creative Commons jurisdiction license (either this or a later license version) that contains the same License Elements as this License (e.g., Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 US)); (iv) a Creative Commons Compatible License. If you license the Adaptation under one of the licenses mentioned in (iv), you must comply with the terms of that license. If you license the Adaptation under the terms of any of the licenses mentioned in (i), (ii) or (iii) (the "Applicable License"), you must comply with the terms of the Applicable License generally and the following provisions: (I) You must include a copy of, or the URI for, the Applicable License with every copy of each Adaptation You Distribute or Publicly Perform; (II) You may not offer or impose any terms on the Adaptation that restrict the terms of the Applicable License or the ability of the recipient of the Adaptation to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the Applicable License; (III) You must keep intact all notices that refer to the Applicable License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work as included in the Adaptation You Distribute or Publicly Perform; (IV) when You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Adaptation, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Adaptation that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Adaptation from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the Applicable License. This Section 4(b) applies to the Adaptation as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Adaptation itself to be made subject to the terms of the Applicable License.
3. If You Distribute, or Publicly Perform the Work or any Adaptations or Collections, You must, unless a request has been made pursuant to Section 4(a), keep intact all copyright notices for the Work and provide, reasonable to the medium or means You are utilizing: (i) the name of the Original Author (or pseudonym, if applicable) if supplied, and/or if the Original Author and/or Licensor designate another party or parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entity, journal) for attribution ("Attribution Parties") in Licensor's copyright notice, terms of service or by other reasonable means, the name of such party or parties; (ii) the title of the Work if supplied; (iii) to the extent reasonably practicable, the URI, if any, that Licensor specifies to be associated with the Work, unless such URI does not refer to the copyright notice or licensing information for the Work; and (iv) , consistent with Ssection 3(b), in the case of an Adaptation, a credit identifying the use of the Work in the Adaptation (e.g., "French translation of the Work by Original Author," or "Screenplay based on original Work by Original Author"). The credit required by this Section 4(c) may be implemented in any reasonable manner; provided, however, that in the case of a Adaptation or Collection, at a minimum such credit will appear, if a credit for all contributing authors of the Adaptation or Collection appears, then as part of these credits and in a manner at least as prominent as the credits for the other contributing authors. For the avoidance of doubt, You may only use the credit required by this Section for the purpose of attribution in the manner set out above and, by exercising Your rights under this License, You may not implicitly or explicitly assert or imply any connection with, sponsorship or endorsement by the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties, as appropriate, of You or Your use of the Work, without the separate, express prior written permission of the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties.
4. Except as otherwise agreed in writing by the Licensor or as may be otherwise permitted by applicable law, if You Reproduce, Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work either by itself or as part of any Adaptations or Collections, You must not distort, mutilate, modify or take other derogatory action in relation to the Work which would be prejudicial to the Original Author's honor or reputation. Licensor agrees that in those jurisdictions (e.g. Japan), in which any exercise of the right granted in Section 3(b) of this License (the right to make Adaptations) would be deemed to be a distortion, mutilation, modification or other derogatory action prejudicial to the Original Author's honor and reputation, the Licensor will waive or not assert, as appropriate, this Section, to the fullest extent permitted by the applicable national law, to enable You to reasonably exercise Your right under Section 3(b) of this License (right to make Adaptations) but not otherwise.

5. Representations, Warranties and Disclaimer

UNLESS OTHERWISE MUTUALLY AGREED TO BY THE PARTIES IN WRITING, LICENSOR OFFERS THE WORK AS-IS AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE WORK, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTIBILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NONINFRINGEMENT, OR THE ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT DISCOVERABLE. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO SUCH EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

6. Limitation on Liability. EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT WILL LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS LICENSE OR THE USE OF THE WORK, EVEN IF LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

7. Termination

1. This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate automatically upon any breach by You of the terms of this License. Individuals or entities who have received Adaptations or Collections from You under this License, however, will not have their licenses terminated provided such individuals or entities remain in full compliance with those licenses. Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 will survive any termination of this License.
2. Subject to the above terms and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright in the Work). Notwithstanding the above, Licensor reserves the right to release the Work under different license terms or to stop distributing the Work at any time; provided, however that any such election will not serve to withdraw this License (or any other license that has been, or is required to be, granted under the terms of this License), and this License will continue in full force and effect unless terminated as stated above.

8. Miscellaneous

1. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work or a Collection, the Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
2. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation, Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the original Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
3. If any provision of this License is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, it shall not affect the validity or enforceability of the remainder of the terms of this License, and without further action by the parties to this agreement, such provision shall be reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make such provision valid and enforceable.
4. No term or provision of this License shall be deemed waived and no breach consented to unless such waiver or consent shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged with such waiver or consent.
5. This License constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the Work licensed here. There are no understandings, agreements or representations with respect to the Work not specified here. Licensor shall not be bound by any additional provisions that may appear in any communication from You. This License may not be modified without the mutual written agreement of the Licensor and You.
6. The rights granted under, and the subject matter referenced, in this License were drafted utilizing the terminology of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on September 28, 1979), the Rome Convention of 1961, the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and the Universal Copyright Convention (as revised on July 24, 1971). These rights and subject matter take effect in the relevant jurisdiction in which the License terms are sought to be enforced according to the corresponding provisions of the implementation of those treaty provisions in the applicable national law. If the standard suite of rights granted under applicable copyright law includes additional rights not granted under this License, such additional rights are deemed to be included in the License; this License is not intended to restrict the license of any rights under applicable law.

Attribution-NoDerivatives CC BY-ND

This license allows for redistribution, commercial and non-commercial, as long as it is passed along unchanged and in whole, with credit to you.

Legal Code :

1. Definitions

1. "Adaptation" means a work based upon the Work, or upon the Work and other pre-existing works, such as a translation, adaptation, derivative work, arrangement of music or other alterations of a literary or artistic work, or phonogram or performance and includes cinematographic adaptations or any other form in which the Work may be recast, transformed, or adapted including in any form recognizably derived from the original, except that a work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License. For the avoidance of doubt, where the Work is a musical work, performance or phonogram, the synchronization of the Work in timed-relation with a moving image ("synching") will be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License.
2. "Collection" means a collection of literary or artistic works, such as encyclopedias and anthologies, or performances, phonograms or broadcasts, or other works or subject matter other than works listed in Section 1(f) below, which, by reason of the selection and arrangement of their contents, constitute intellectual creations, in which the Work is included in its entirety in unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent works in themselves, which together are assembled into a collective whole. A work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation (as defined above) for the purposes of this License.
3. "Distribute" means to make available to the public the original and copies of the Work through sale or other transfer of ownership.
4. "Licensor" means the individual, individuals, entity or entities that offer(s) the Work under the terms of this License.
5. "Original Author" means, in the case of a literary or artistic work, the individual, individuals, entity or entities who created the Work or if no individual or entity can be identified, the publisher; and in addition (i) in the case of a performance the actors, singers, musicians, dancers, and other persons who act, sing, deliver, declaim, play in, interpret or otherwise perform literary or artistic works or expressions of folklore; (ii) in the case of a phonogram the producer being the person or legal entity who first fixes the sounds of a performance or other sounds; and, (iii) in the case of broadcasts, the organization that transmits the broadcast.
6. "Work" means the literary and/or artistic work offered under the terms of this License including without limitation any production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or form of its expression including digital form, such as a book, pamphlet and other writing; a lecture, address, sermon or other work of the same nature; a dramatic or dramatico-musical work; a choreographic work or entertainment in dumb show; a musical composition with or without words; a cinematographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to cinematography; a work of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving or lithography; a photographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography; a work of applied art; an illustration, map, plan, sketch or three-dimensional work relative to geography, topography, architecture or science; a performance; a broadcast; a phonogram; a compilation of data to the extent it is protected as a copyrightable work; or a work performed by a variety or circus performer to the extent it is not otherwise considered a literary or artistic work.
7. "You" means an individual or entity exercising rights under this License who has not previously violated the terms of this License with respect to the Work, or who has received express permission from the Licensor to exercise rights under this License despite a previous violation.
8. "Publicly Perform" means to perform public recitations of the Work and to communicate to the public those public recitations, by any means or process, including by wire or wireless means or public digital performances; to make available to the public Works in such a way that members of the public may access these Works from a place and at a place individually chosen by them; to perform the Work to the public by any means or process and the communication to the public of the performances of the Work, including by public digital performance; to broadcast and rebroadcast the Work by any means including signs, sounds or images.
9. "Reproduce" means to make copies of the Work by any means including without limitation by sound or visual recordings and the right of fixation and reproducing fixations of the Work, including storage of a protected performance or phonogram in digital form or other electronic medium.

2. Fair Dealing Rights. Nothing in this License is intended to reduce, limit, or restrict any uses free from copyright or rights arising from limitations or exceptions that are provided for in connection with the copyright protection under copyright law or other applicable laws.

3. License Grant. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-exclusive, perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright) license to exercise the rights in the Work as stated below:

1. to Reproduce the Work, to incorporate the Work into one or more Collections, and to Reproduce the Work as incorporated in the Collections; and,
2. to Distribute and Publicly Perform the Work including as incorporated in Collections.
3. For the avoidance of doubt:
1. Non-waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme cannot be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License;
2. Waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme can be waived, the Licensor waives the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License; and,
3. Voluntary License Schemes. The Licensor waives the right to collect royalties, whether individually or, in the event that the Licensor is a member of a collecting society that administers voluntary licensing schemes, via that society, from any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License.

The above rights may be exercised in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter devised. The above rights include the right to make such modifications as are technically necessary to exercise the rights in other media and formats, but otherwise you have no rights to make Adaptations. Subject to Section 8(f), all rights not expressly granted by Licensor are hereby reserved.

4. Restrictions. The license granted in Section 3 above is expressly made subject to and limited by the following restrictions:

1. You may Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work only under the terms of this License. You must include a copy of, or the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) for, this License with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on the Work that restrict the terms of this License or the ability of the recipient of the Work to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. You may not sublicense the Work. You must keep intact all notices that refer to this License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Work that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Work from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. This Section 4(a) applies to the Work as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Work itself to be made subject to the terms of this License. If You create a Collection, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Collection any credit as required by Section 4(b), as requested.
2. If You Distribute, or Publicly Perform the Work or Collections, You must, unless a request has been made pursuant to Section 4(a), keep intact all copyright notices for the Work and provide, reasonable to the medium or means You are utilizing: (i) the name of the Original Author (or pseudonym, if applicable) if supplied, and/or if the Original Author and/or Licensor designate another party or parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entity, journal) for attribution ("Attribution Parties") in Licensor's copyright notice, terms of service or by other reasonable means, the name of such party or parties; (ii) the title of the Work if supplied; (iii) to the extent reasonably practicable, the URI, if any, that Licensor specifies to be associated with the Work, unless such URI does not refer to the copyright notice or licensing information for the Work. The credit required by this Section 4(b) may be implemented in any reasonable manner; provided, however, that in the case of a Collection, at a minimum such credit will appear, if a credit for all contributing authors of the Collection appears, then as part of these credits and in a manner at least as prominent as the credits for the other contributing authors. For the avoidance of doubt, You may only use the credit required by this Section for the purpose of attribution in the manner set out above and, by exercising Your rights under this License, You may not implicitly or explicitly assert or imply any connection with, sponsorship or endorsement by the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties, as appropriate, of You or Your use of the Work, without the separate, express prior written permission of the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties.
3. Except as otherwise agreed in writing by the Licensor or as may be otherwise permitted by applicable law, if You Reproduce, Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work either by itself or as part of any Collections, You must not distort, mutilate, modify or take other derogatory action in relation to the Work which would be prejudicial to the Original Author's honor or reputation.

5. Representations, Warranties and Disclaimer

UNLESS OTHERWISE MUTUALLY AGREED TO BY THE PARTIES IN WRITING, LICENSOR OFFERS THE WORK AS-IS AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE WORK, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTIBILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NONINFRINGEMENT, OR THE ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT DISCOVERABLE. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO SUCH EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

6. Limitation on Liability. EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT WILL LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS LICENSE OR THE USE OF THE WORK, EVEN IF LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

7. Termination

1. This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate automatically upon any breach by You of the terms of this License. Individuals or entities who have received Collections from You under this License, however, will not have their licenses terminated provided such individuals or entities remain in full compliance with those licenses. Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 will survive any termination of this License.
2. Subject to the above terms and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright in the Work). Notwithstanding the above, Licensor reserves the right to release the Work under different license terms or to stop distributing the Work at any time; provided, however that any such election will not serve to withdraw this License (or any other license that has been, or is required to be, granted under the terms of this License), and this License will continue in full force and effect unless terminated as stated above.

8. Miscellaneous

1. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work or a Collection, the Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
2. If any provision of this License is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, it shall not affect the validity or enforceability of the remainder of the terms of this License, and without further action by the parties to this agreement, such provision shall be reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make such provision valid and enforceable.
3. No term or provision of this License shall be deemed waived and no breach consented to unless such waiver or consent shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged with such waiver or consent.
4. This License constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the Work licensed here. There are no understandings, agreements or representations with respect to the Work not specified here. Licensor shall not be bound by any additional provisions that may appear in any communication from You. This License may not be modified without the mutual written agreement of the Licensor and You.
5. The rights granted under, and the subject matter referenced, in this License were drafted utilizing the terminology of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on September 28, 1979), the Rome Convention of 1961, the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and the Universal Copyright Convention (as revised on July 24, 1971). These rights and subject matter take effect in the relevant jurisdiction in which the License terms are sought to be enforced according to the corresponding provisions of the implementation of those treaty provisions in the applicable national law. If the standard suite of rights granted under applicable copyright law includes additional rights not granted under this License, such additional rights are deemed to be included in the License; this License is not intended to restrict the license of any rights under applicable law.

Attribution-NonCommercial CC BY-NC

This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work non-commercially, and although their new works must also acknowledge you and be non-commercial, they don’t have to license their derivative works on the same terms.

Legal Code :

1. Definitions

1. "Adaptation" means a work based upon the Work, or upon the Work and other pre-existing works, such as a translation, adaptation, derivative work, arrangement of music or other alterations of a literary or artistic work, or phonogram or performance and includes cinematographic adaptations or any other form in which the Work may be recast, transformed, or adapted including in any form recognizably derived from the original, except that a work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License. For the avoidance of doubt, where the Work is a musical work, performance or phonogram, the synchronization of the Work in timed-relation with a moving image ("synching") will be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License.
2. "Collection" means a collection of literary or artistic works, such as encyclopedias and anthologies, or performances, phonograms or broadcasts, or other works or subject matter other than works listed in Section 1(f) below, which, by reason of the selection and arrangement of their contents, constitute intellectual creations, in which the Work is included in its entirety in unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent works in themselves, which together are assembled into a collective whole. A work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation (as defined above) for the purposes of this License.
3. "Distribute" means to make available to the public the original and copies of the Work or Adaptation, as appropriate, through sale or other transfer of ownership.
4. "Licensor" means the individual, individuals, entity or entities that offer(s) the Work under the terms of this License.
5. "Original Author" means, in the case of a literary or artistic work, the individual, individuals, entity or entities who created the Work or if no individual or entity can be identified, the publisher; and in addition (i) in the case of a performance the actors, singers, musicians, dancers, and other persons who act, sing, deliver, declaim, play in, interpret or otherwise perform literary or artistic works or expressions of folklore; (ii) in the case of a phonogram the producer being the person or legal entity who first fixes the sounds of a performance or other sounds; and, (iii) in the case of broadcasts, the organization that transmits the broadcast.
6. "Work" means the literary and/or artistic work offered under the terms of this License including without limitation any production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or form of its expression including digital form, such as a book, pamphlet and other writing; a lecture, address, sermon or other work of the same nature; a dramatic or dramatico-musical work; a choreographic work or entertainment in dumb show; a musical composition with or without words; a cinematographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to cinematography; a work of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving or lithography; a photographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography; a work of applied art; an illustration, map, plan, sketch or three-dimensional work relative to geography, topography, architecture or science; a performance; a broadcast; a phonogram; a compilation of data to the extent it is protected as a copyrightable work; or a work performed by a variety or circus performer to the extent it is not otherwise considered a literary or artistic work.
7. "You" means an individual or entity exercising rights under this License who has not previously violated the terms of this License with respect to the Work, or who has received express permission from the Licensor to exercise rights under this License despite a previous violation.
8. "Publicly Perform" means to perform public recitations of the Work and to communicate to the public those public recitations, by any means or process, including by wire or wireless means or public digital performances; to make available to the public Works in such a way that members of the public may access these Works from a place and at a place individually chosen by them; to perform the Work to the public by any means or process and the communication to the public of the performances of the Work, including by public digital performance; to broadcast and rebroadcast the Work by any means including signs, sounds or images.
9. "Reproduce" means to make copies of the Work by any means including without limitation by sound or visual recordings and the right of fixation and reproducing fixations of the Work, including storage of a protected performance or phonogram in digital form or other electronic medium.

2. Fair Dealing Rights. Nothing in this License is intended to reduce, limit, or restrict any uses free from copyright or rights arising from limitations or exceptions that are provided for in connection with the copyright protection under copyright law or other applicable laws.

3. License Grant. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-exclusive, perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright) license to exercise the rights in the Work as stated below:

1. to Reproduce the Work, to incorporate the Work into one or more Collections, and to Reproduce the Work as incorporated in the Collections;
2. to create and Reproduce Adaptations provided that any such Adaptation, including any translation in any medium, takes reasonable steps to clearly label, demarcate or otherwise identify that changes were made to the original Work. For example, a translation could be marked "The original work was translated from English to Spanish," or a modification could indicate "The original work has been modified.";
3. to Distribute and Publicly Perform the Work including as incorporated in Collections; and,
4. to Distribute and Publicly Perform Adaptations.

The above rights may be exercised in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter devised. The above rights include the right to make such modifications as are technically necessary to exercise the rights in other media and formats. Subject to Section 8(f), all rights not expressly granted by Licensor are hereby reserved, including but not limited to the rights set forth in Section 4(d).

4. Restrictions. The license granted in Section 3 above is expressly made subject to and limited by the following restrictions:

1. You may Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work only under the terms of this License. You must include a copy of, or the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) for, this License with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on the Work that restrict the terms of this License or the ability of the recipient of the Work to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. You may not sublicense the Work. You must keep intact all notices that refer to this License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Work that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Work from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. This Section 4(a) applies to the Work as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Work itself to be made subject to the terms of this License. If You create a Collection, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Collection any credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested. If You create an Adaptation, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Adaptation any credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested.
2. You may not exercise any of the rights granted to You in Section 3 above in any manner that is primarily intended for or directed toward commercial advantage or private monetary compensation. The exchange of the Work for other copyrighted works by means of digital file-sharing or otherwise shall not be considered to be intended for or directed toward commercial advantage or private monetary compensation, provided there is no payment of any monetary compensation in connection with the exchange of copyrighted works.
3. If You Distribute, or Publicly Perform the Work or any Adaptations or Collections, You must, unless a request has been made pursuant to Section 4(a), keep intact all copyright notices for the Work and provide, reasonable to the medium or means You are utilizing: (i) the name of the Original Author (or pseudonym, if applicable) if supplied, and/or if the Original Author and/or Licensor designate another party or parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entity, journal) for attribution ("Attribution Parties") in Licensor's copyright notice, terms of service or by other reasonable means, the name of such party or parties; (ii) the title of the Work if supplied; (iii) to the extent reasonably practicable, the URI, if any, that Licensor specifies to be associated with the Work, unless such URI does not refer to the copyright notice or licensing information for the Work; and, (iv) consistent with Section 3(b), in the case of an Adaptation, a credit identifying the use of the Work in the Adaptation (e.g., "French translation of the Work by Original Author," or "Screenplay based on original Work by Original Author"). The credit required by this Section 4(c) may be implemented in any reasonable manner; provided, however, that in the case of a Adaptation or Collection, at a minimum such credit will appear, if a credit for all contributing authors of the Adaptation or Collection appears, then as part of these credits and in a manner at least as prominent as the credits for the other contributing authors. For the avoidance of doubt, You may only use the credit required by this Section for the purpose of attribution in the manner set out above and, by exercising Your rights under this License, You may not implicitly or explicitly assert or imply any connection with, sponsorship or endorsement by the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties, as appropriate, of You or Your use of the Work, without the separate, express prior written permission of the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties.
4. For the avoidance of doubt:
1. Non-waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme cannot be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License;
2. Waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme can be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License if Your exercise of such rights is for a purpose or use which is otherwise than noncommercial as permitted under Section 4(b) and otherwise waives the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme; and,
3. Voluntary License Schemes. The Licensor reserves the right to collect royalties, whether individually or, in the event that the Licensor is a member of a collecting society that administers voluntary licensing schemes, via that society, from any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License that is for a purpose or use which is otherwise than noncommercial as permitted under Section 4(c).
5. Except as otherwise agreed in writing by the Licensor or as may be otherwise permitted by applicable law, if You Reproduce, Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work either by itself or as part of any Adaptations or Collections, You must not distort, mutilate, modify or take other derogatory action in relation to the Work which would be prejudicial to the Original Author's honor or reputation. Licensor agrees that in those jurisdictions (e.g. Japan), in which any exercise of the right granted in Section 3(b) of this License (the right to make Adaptations) would be deemed to be a distortion, mutilation, modification or other derogatory action prejudicial to the Original Author's honor and reputation, the Licensor will waive or not assert, as appropriate, this Section, to the fullest extent permitted by the applicable national law, to enable You to reasonably exercise Your right under Section 3(b) of this License (right to make Adaptations) but not otherwise.

5. Representations, Warranties and Disclaimer

UNLESS OTHERWISE MUTUALLY AGREED TO BY THE PARTIES IN WRITING, LICENSOR OFFERS THE WORK AS-IS AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE WORK, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTIBILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NONINFRINGEMENT, OR THE ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT DISCOVERABLE. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO SUCH EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

6. Limitation on Liability. EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT WILL LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS LICENSE OR THE USE OF THE WORK, EVEN IF LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

7. Termination

1. This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate automatically upon any breach by You of the terms of this License. Individuals or entities who have received Adaptations or Collections from You under this License, however, will not have their licenses terminated provided such individuals or entities remain in full compliance with those licenses. Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 will survive any termination of this License.
2. Subject to the above terms and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright in the Work). Notwithstanding the above, Licensor reserves the right to release the Work under different license terms or to stop distributing the Work at any time; provided, however that any such election will not serve to withdraw this License (or any other license that has been, or is required to be, granted under the terms of this License), and this License will continue in full force and effect unless terminated as stated above.

8. Miscellaneous

1. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work or a Collection, the Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
2. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation, Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the original Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
3. If any provision of this License is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, it shall not affect the validity or enforceability of the remainder of the terms of this License, and without further action by the parties to this agreement, such provision shall be reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make such provision valid and enforceable.
4. No term or provision of this License shall be deemed waived and no breach consented to unless such waiver or consent shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged with such waiver or consent.
5. This License constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the Work licensed here. There are no understandings, agreements or representations with respect to the Work not specified here. Licensor shall not be bound by any additional provisions that may appear in any communication from You. This License may not be modified without the mutual written agreement of the Licensor and You.
6. The rights granted under, and the subject matter referenced, in this License were drafted utilizing the terminology of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on September 28, 1979), the Rome Convention of 1961, the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and the Universal Copyright Convention (as revised on July 24, 1971). These rights and subject matter take effect in the relevant jurisdiction in which the License terms are sought to be enforced according to the corresponding provisions of the implementation of those treaty provisions in the applicable national law. If the standard suite of rights granted under applicable copyright law includes additional rights not granted under this License, such additional rights are deemed to be included in the License; this License is not intended to restrict the license of any rights under applicable law.

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA

This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work non-commercially, as long as they credit you and license their new creations under the identical terms.

Legal Code :

1. Definitions

1. "Adaptation" means a work based upon the Work, or upon the Work and other pre-existing works, such as a translation, adaptation, derivative work, arrangement of music or other alterations of a literary or artistic work, or phonogram or performance and includes cinematographic adaptations or any other form in which the Work may be recast, transformed, or adapted including in any form recognizably derived from the original, except that a work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License. For the avoidance of doubt, where the Work is a musical work, performance or phonogram, the synchronization of the Work in timed-relation with a moving image ("synching") will be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License.
2. "Collection" means a collection of literary or artistic works, such as encyclopedias and anthologies, or performances, phonograms or broadcasts, or other works or subject matter other than works listed in Section 1(g) below, which, by reason of the selection and arrangement of their contents, constitute intellectual creations, in which the Work is included in its entirety in unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent works in themselves, which together are assembled into a collective whole. A work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation (as defined above) for the purposes of this License.
3. "Distribute" means to make available to the public the original and copies of the Work or Adaptation, as appropriate, through sale or other transfer of ownership.
4. "License Elements" means the following high-level license attributes as selected by Licensor and indicated in the title of this License: Attribution, Noncommercial, ShareAlike.
5. "Licensor" means the individual, individuals, entity or entities that offer(s) the Work under the terms of this License.
6. "Original Author" means, in the case of a literary or artistic work, the individual, individuals, entity or entities who created the Work or if no individual or entity can be identified, the publisher; and in addition (i) in the case of a performance the actors, singers, musicians, dancers, and other persons who act, sing, deliver, declaim, play in, interpret or otherwise perform literary or artistic works or expressions of folklore; (ii) in the case of a phonogram the producer being the person or legal entity who first fixes the sounds of a performance or other sounds; and, (iii) in the case of broadcasts, the organization that transmits the broadcast.
7. "Work" means the literary and/or artistic work offered under the terms of this License including without limitation any production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or form of its expression including digital form, such as a book, pamphlet and other writing; a lecture, address, sermon or other work of the same nature; a dramatic or dramatico-musical work; a choreographic work or entertainment in dumb show; a musical composition with or without words; a cinematographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to cinematography; a work of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving or lithography; a photographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography; a work of applied art; an illustration, map, plan, sketch or three-dimensional work relative to geography, topography, architecture or science; a performance; a broadcast; a phonogram; a compilation of data to the extent it is protected as a copyrightable work; or a work performed by a variety or circus performer to the extent it is not otherwise considered a literary or artistic work.
8. "You" means an individual or entity exercising rights under this License who has not previously violated the terms of this License with respect to the Work, or who has received express permission from the Licensor to exercise rights under this License despite a previous violation.
9. "Publicly Perform" means to perform public recitations of the Work and to communicate to the public those public recitations, by any means or process, including by wire or wireless means or public digital performances; to make available to the public Works in such a way that members of the public may access these Works from a place and at a place individually chosen by them; to perform the Work to the public by any means or process and the communication to the public of the performances of the Work, including by public digital performance; to broadcast and rebroadcast the Work by any means including signs, sounds or images.
10. "Reproduce" means to make copies of the Work by any means including without limitation by sound or visual recordings and the right of fixation and reproducing fixations of the Work, including storage of a protected performance or phonogram in digital form or other electronic medium.

2. Fair Dealing Rights. Nothing in this License is intended to reduce, limit, or restrict any uses free from copyright or rights arising from limitations or exceptions that are provided for in connection with the copyright protection under copyright law or other applicable laws.

3. License Grant. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-exclusive, perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright) license to exercise the rights in the Work as stated below:

1. to Reproduce the Work, to incorporate the Work into one or more Collections, and to Reproduce the Work as incorporated in the Collections;
2. to create and Reproduce Adaptations provided that any such Adaptation, including any translation in any medium, takes reasonable steps to clearly label, demarcate or otherwise identify that changes were made to the original Work. For example, a translation could be marked "The original work was translated from English to Spanish," or a modification could indicate "The original work has been modified.";
3. to Distribute and Publicly Perform the Work including as incorporated in Collections; and,
4. to Distribute and Publicly Perform Adaptations.

The above rights may be exercised in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter devised. The above rights include the right to make such modifications as are technically necessary to exercise the rights in other media and formats. Subject to Section 8(f), all rights not expressly granted by Licensor are hereby reserved, including but not limited to the rights described in Section 4(e).

4. Restrictions. The license granted in Section 3 above is expressly made subject to and limited by the following restrictions:

1. You may Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work only under the terms of this License. You must include a copy of, or the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) for, this License with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on the Work that restrict the terms of this License or the ability of the recipient of the Work to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. You may not sublicense the Work. You must keep intact all notices that refer to this License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Work that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Work from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. This Section 4(a) applies to the Work as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Work itself to be made subject to the terms of this License. If You create a Collection, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Collection any credit as required by Section 4(d), as requested. If You create an Adaptation, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Adaptation any credit as required by Section 4(d), as requested.
2. You may Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation only under: (i) the terms of this License; (ii) a later version of this License with the same License Elements as this License; (iii) a Creative Commons jurisdiction license (either this or a later license version) that contains the same License Elements as this License (e.g., Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 US) ("Applicable License"). You must include a copy of, or the URI, for Applicable License with every copy of each Adaptation You Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on the Adaptation that restrict the terms of the Applicable License or the ability of the recipient of the Adaptation to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the Applicable License. You must keep intact all notices that refer to the Applicable License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work as included in the Adaptation You Distribute or Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Adaptation, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Adaptation that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Adaptation from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the Applicable License. This Section 4(b) applies to the Adaptation as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Adaptation itself to be made subject to the terms of the Applicable License.
3. You may not exercise any of the rights granted to You in Section 3 above in any manner that is primarily intended for or directed toward commercial advantage or private monetary compensation. The exchange of the Work for other copyrighted works by means of digital file-sharing or otherwise shall not be considered to be intended for or directed toward commercial advantage or private monetary compensation, provided there is no payment of any monetary compensation in con-nection with the exchange of copyrighted works.
4. If You Distribute, or Publicly Perform the Work or any Adaptations or Collections, You must, unless a request has been made pursuant to Section 4(a), keep intact all copyright notices for the Work and provide, reasonable to the medium or means You are utilizing: (i) the name of the Original Author (or pseudonym, if applicable) if supplied, and/or if the Original Author and/or Licensor designate another party or parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entity, journal) for attribution ("Attribution Parties") in Licensor's copyright notice, terms of service or by other reasonable means, the name of such party or parties; (ii) the title of the Work if supplied; (iii) to the extent reasonably practicable, the URI, if any, that Licensor specifies to be associated with the Work, unless such URI does not refer to the copyright notice or licensing information for the Work; and, (iv) consistent with Section 3(b), in the case of an Adaptation, a credit identifying the use of the Work in the Adaptation (e.g., "French translation of the Work by Original Author," or "Screenplay based on original Work by Original Author"). The credit required by this Section 4(d) may be implemented in any reasonable manner; provided, however, that in the case of a Adaptation or Collection, at a minimum such credit will appear, if a credit for all contributing authors of the Adaptation or Collection appears, then as part of these credits and in a manner at least as prominent as the credits for the other contributing authors. For the avoidance of doubt, You may only use the credit required by this Section for the purpose of attribution in the manner set out above and, by exercising Your rights under this License, You may not implicitly or explicitly assert or imply any connection with, sponsorship or endorsement by the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties, as appropriate, of You or Your use of the Work, without the separate, express prior written permission of the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties.
5. For the avoidance of doubt:
1. Non-waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme cannot be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License;
2. Waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme can be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License if Your exercise of such rights is for a purpose or use which is otherwise than noncommercial as permitted under Section 4(c) and otherwise waives the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme; and,
3. Voluntary License Schemes. The Licensor reserves the right to collect royalties, whether individually or, in the event that the Licensor is a member of a collecting society that administers voluntary licensing schemes, via that society, from any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License that is for a purpose or use which is otherwise than noncommercial as permitted under Section 4(c).
6. Except as otherwise agreed in writing by the Licensor or as may be otherwise permitted by applicable law, if You Reproduce, Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work either by itself or as part of any Adaptations or Collections, You must not distort, mutilate, modify or take other derogatory action in relation to the Work which would be prejudicial to the Original Author's honor or reputation. Licensor agrees that in those jurisdictions (e.g. Japan), in which any exercise of the right granted in Section 3(b) of this License (the right to make Adaptations) would be deemed to be a distortion, mutilation, modification or other derogatory action prejudicial to the Original Author's honor and reputation, the Licensor will waive or not assert, as appropriate, this Section, to the fullest extent permitted by the applicable national law, to enable You to reasonably exercise Your right under Section 3(b) of this License (right to make Adaptations) but not otherwise.

5. Representations, Warranties and Disclaimer

UNLESS OTHERWISE MUTUALLY AGREED TO BY THE PARTIES IN WRITING AND TO THE FULLEST EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, LICENSOR OFFERS THE WORK AS-IS AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE WORK, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NONINFRINGEMENT, OR THE ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT DISCOVERABLE. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO THIS EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

6. Limitation on Liability. EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT WILL LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS LICENSE OR THE USE OF THE WORK, EVEN IF LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

7. Termination

1. This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate automatically upon any breach by You of the terms of this License. Individuals or entities who have received Adaptations or Collections from You under this License, however, will not have their licenses terminated provided such individuals or entities remain in full compliance with those licenses. Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 will survive any termination of this License.
2. Subject to the above terms and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright in the Work). Notwithstanding the above, Licensor reserves the right to release the Work under different license terms or to stop distributing the Work at any time; provided, however that any such election will not serve to withdraw this License (or any other license that has been, or is required to be, granted under the terms of this License), and this License will continue in full force and effect unless terminated as stated above.

8. Miscellaneous

1. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work or a Collection, the Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
2. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation, Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the original Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
3. If any provision of this License is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, it shall not affect the validity or enforceability of the remainder of the terms of this License, and without further action by the parties to this agreement, such provision shall be reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make such provision valid and enforceable.
4. No term or provision of this License shall be deemed waived and no breach consented to unless such waiver or consent shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged with such waiver or consent.
5. This License constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the Work licensed here. There are no understandings, agreements or representations with respect to the Work not specified here. Licensor shall not be bound by any additional provisions that may appear in any communication from You. This License may not be modified without the mutual written agreement of the Licensor and You.
6. The rights granted under, and the subject matter referenced, in this License were drafted utilizing the terminology of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on September 28, 1979), the Rome Convention of 1961, the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and the Universal Copyright Convention (as revised on July 24, 1971). These rights and subject matter take effect in the relevant jurisdiction in which the License terms are sought to be enforced according to the corresponding provisions of the implementation of those treaty provisions in the applicable national law. If the standard suite of rights granted under applicable copyright law includes additional rights not granted under this License, such additional rights are deemed to be included in the License; this License is not intended to restrict the license of any rights under applicable law.

Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives CC BY-NC-ND

This license is the most restrictive of our six main licenses, only allowing others to download your works and share them with others as long as they credit you, but they can’t change them in any way or use them commercially.

Legal Code :

1. Definitions

1. "Adaptation" means a work based upon the Work, or upon the Work and other pre-existing works, such as a translation, adaptation, derivative work, arrangement of music or other alterations of a literary or artistic work, or phonogram or performance and includes cinematographic adaptations or any other form in which the Work may be recast, transformed, or adapted including in any form recognizably derived from the original, except that a work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License. For the avoidance of doubt, where the Work is a musical work, performance or phonogram, the synchronization of the Work in timed-relation with a moving image ("synching") will be considered an Adaptation for the purpose of this License.
2. "Collection" means a collection of literary or artistic works, such as encyclopedias and anthologies, or performances, phonograms or broadcasts, or other works or subject matter other than works listed in Section 1(f) below, which, by reason of the selection and arrangement of their contents, constitute intellectual creations, in which the Work is included in its entirety in unmodified form along with one or more other contributions, each constituting separate and independent works in themselves, which together are assembled into a collective whole. A work that constitutes a Collection will not be considered an Adaptation (as defined above) for the purposes of this License.
3. "Distribute" means to make available to the public the original and copies of the Work through sale or other transfer of ownership.
4. "Licensor" means the individual, individuals, entity or entities that offer(s) the Work under the terms of this License.
5. "Original Author" means, in the case of a literary or artistic work, the individual, individuals, entity or entities who created the Work or if no individual or entity can be identified, the publisher; and in addition (i) in the case of a performance the actors, singers, musicians, dancers, and other persons who act, sing, deliver, declaim, play in, interpret or otherwise perform literary or artistic works or expressions of folklore; (ii) in the case of a phonogram the producer being the person or legal entity who first fixes the sounds of a performance or other sounds; and, (iii) in the case of broadcasts, the organization that transmits the broadcast.
6. "Work" means the literary and/or artistic work offered under the terms of this License including without limitation any production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or form of its expression including digital form, such as a book, pamphlet and other writing; a lecture, address, sermon or other work of the same nature; a dramatic or dramatico-musical work; a choreographic work or entertainment in dumb show; a musical composition with or without words; a cinematographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to cinematography; a work of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving or lithography; a photographic work to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography; a work of applied art; an illustration, map, plan, sketch or three-dimensional work relative to geography, topography, architecture or science; a performance; a broadcast; a phonogram; a compilation of data to the extent it is protected as a copyrightable work; or a work performed by a variety or circus performer to the extent it is not otherwise considered a literary or artistic work.
7. "You" means an individual or entity exercising rights under this License who has not previously violated the terms of this License with respect to the Work, or who has received express permission from the Licensor to exercise rights under this License despite a previous violation.
8. "Publicly Perform" means to perform public recitations of the Work and to communicate to the public those public recitations, by any means or process, including by wire or wireless means or public digital performances; to make available to the public Works in such a way that members of the public may access these Works from a place and at a place individually chosen by them; to perform the Work to the public by any means or process and the communication to the public of the performances of the Work, including by public digital performance; to broadcast and rebroadcast the Work by any means including signs, sounds or images.
9. "Reproduce" means to make copies of the Work by any means including without limitation by sound or visual recordings and the right of fixation and reproducing fixations of the Work, including storage of a protected performance or phonogram in digital form or other electronic medium.

2. Fair Dealing Rights. Nothing in this License is intended to reduce, limit, or restrict any uses free from copyright or rights arising from limitations or exceptions that are provided for in connection with the copyright protection under copyright law or other applicable laws.

3. License Grant. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-exclusive, perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright) license to exercise the rights in the Work as stated below:

1. to Reproduce the Work, to incorporate the Work into one or more Collections, and to Reproduce the Work as incorporated in the Collections; and,
2. to Distribute and Publicly Perform the Work including as incorporated in Collections.

The above rights may be exercised in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter devised. The above rights include the right to make such modifications as are technically necessary to exercise the rights in other media and formats, but otherwise you have no rights to make Adaptations. Subject to 8(f), all rights not expressly granted by Licensor are hereby reserved, including but not limited to the rights set forth in Section 4(d).

4. Restrictions. The license granted in Section 3 above is expressly made subject to and limited by the following restrictions:

1. You may Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work only under the terms of this License. You must include a copy of, or the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) for, this License with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on the Work that restrict the terms of this License or the ability of the recipient of the Work to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. You may not sublicense the Work. You must keep intact all notices that refer to this License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Work that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Work from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. This Section 4(a) applies to the Work as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Work itself to be made subject to the terms of this License. If You create a Collection, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Collection any credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested.
2. You may not exercise any of the rights granted to You in Section 3 above in any manner that is primarily intended for or directed toward commercial advantage or private monetary compensation. The exchange of the Work for other copyrighted works by means of digital file-sharing or otherwise shall not be considered to be intended for or directed toward commercial advantage or private monetary compensation, provided there is no payment of any monetary compensation in connection with the exchange of copyrighted works.
3. If You Distribute, or Publicly Perform the Work or Collections, You must, unless a request has been made pursuant to Section 4(a), keep intact all copyright notices for the Work and provide, reasonable to the medium or means You are utilizing: (i) the name of the Original Author (or pseudonym, if applicable) if supplied, and/or if the Original Author and/or Licensor designate another party or parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entity, journal) for attribution ("Attribution Parties") in Licensor's copyright notice, terms of service or by other reasonable means, the name of such party or parties; (ii) the title of the Work if supplied; (iii) to the extent reasonably practicable, the URI, if any, that Licensor specifies to be associated with the Work, unless such URI does not refer to the copyright notice or licensing information for the Work. The credit required by this Section 4(c) may be implemented in any reasonable manner; provided, however, that in the case of a Collection, at a minimum such credit will appear, if a credit for all contributing authors of Collection appears, then as part of these credits and in a manner at least as prominent as the credits for the other contributing authors. For the avoidance of doubt, You may only use the credit required by this Section for the purpose of attribution in the manner set out above and, by exercising Your rights under this License, You may not implicitly or explicitly assert or imply any connection with, sponsorship or endorsement by the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties, as appropriate, of You or Your use of the Work, without the separate, express prior written permission of the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties.
4. For the avoidance of doubt:
1. Non-waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme cannot be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License;
2. Waivable Compulsory License Schemes. In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme can be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License if Your exercise of such rights is for a purpose or use which is otherwise than noncommercial as permitted under Section 4(b) and otherwise waives the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme; and,
3. Voluntary License Schemes. The Licensor reserves the right to collect royalties, whether individually or, in the event that the Licensor is a member of a collecting society that administers voluntary licensing schemes, via that society, from any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License that is for a purpose or use which is otherwise than noncommercial as permitted under Section 4(b).
5. Except as otherwise agreed in writing by the Licensor or as may be otherwise permitted by applicable law, if You Reproduce, Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work either by itself or as part of any Collections, You must not distort, mutilate, modify or take other derogatory action in relation to the Work which would be prejudicial to the Original Author's honor or reputation.

5. Representations, Warranties and Disclaimer

UNLESS OTHERWISE MUTUALLY AGREED BY THE PARTIES IN WRITING, LICENSOR OFFERS THE WORK AS-IS AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE WORK, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTIBILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NONINFRINGEMENT, OR THE ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT DISCOVERABLE. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO SUCH EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU.

6. Limitation on Liability. EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT WILL LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS LICENSE OR THE USE OF THE WORK, EVEN IF LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.

7. Termination

1. This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate automatically upon any breach by You of the terms of this License. Individuals or entities who have received Collections from You under this License, however, will not have their licenses terminated provided such individuals or entities remain in full compliance with those licenses. Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 will survive any termination of this License.
2. Subject to the above terms and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright in the Work). Notwithstanding the above, Licensor reserves the right to release the Work under different license terms or to stop distributing the Work at any time; provided, however that any such election will not serve to withdraw this License (or any other license that has been, or is required to be, granted under the terms of this License), and this License will continue in full force and effect unless terminated as stated above.

8. Miscellaneous

1. Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work or a Collection, the Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.
2. If any provision of this License is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, it shall not affect the validity or enforceability of the remainder of the terms of this License, and without further action by the parties to this agreement, such provision shall be reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make such provision valid and enforceable.
3. No term or provision of this License shall be deemed waived and no breach consented to unless such waiver or consent shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged with such waiver or consent.
4. This License constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the Work licensed here. There are no understandings, agreements or representations with respect to the Work not specified here. Licensor shall not be bound by any additional provisions that may appear in any communication from You. This License may not be modified without the mutual written agreement of the Licensor and You.
5. The rights granted under, and the subject matter referenced, in this License were drafted utilizing the terminology of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on September 28, 1979), the Rome Convention of 1961, the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and the Universal Copyright Convention (as revised on July 24, 1971). These rights and subject matter take effect in the relevant jurisdiction in which the License terms are sought to be enforced according to the corresponding provisions of the implementation of those treaty provisions in the applicable national law. If the standard suite of rights granted under applicable copyright law includes additional rights not granted under this License, such additional rights are deemed to be included in the License; this License is not intended to restrict the license of any rights under applicable law.

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